So we have already explored the concepts of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement, so now we move onto positive punishment and negative punishment.
If you have already read the previous post, then I would imagine that you can work out for yourself what positive punishment and negative punishment involve.
Just as before, positive refers to the addition of a stimuli to the environment, and negative means the removal of a stimuli from an environment. However, within punishment, we are looking to decrease the frequency of a behaviour occurring.
An example of a positive punishment would be a teacher shouting at her pupil for writing on the desk, and he now does not do this behaviour any more. Again, there is a stimulus being added that would not have been there if the behaviour of writing on the desks had not occurred (the teacher shouting), and a decrease in the behaviour being performed in the future.
Negative punishment, on the other hand, would involve something like, a child having their games console removed, due to being augmentative, and then leaving the behaviour performing at a lower frequency than before. A stimulus is being taken away (the games console) and the behaviour (arguing) is decreasing.
There are some instances in the environment when punishment will be more likely too occur than others. A discriminative stimulus of a punisher can be categorised as a environmental stimuli that signals the availability of punishment when certain behaviours are performed. For example, smoking in a non-smoking area is more likely going to lead to punishment than smoking somewhere that is not a designated non-smoking area. For those of who who drive, how many of you frequently speed the entire journey, but slow down when a speed camera appears?
Just like reinforcement, punishment has unconditioned and conditioned punishers. Unconditioned punishers can include, pain, strong smells, physical restraint, and so on. Conditioned punishers can include things such as being shouted at, being nagged, and so on. Be aware that not all conditioned punishers are the same for every animal or human. How many of you have a cat or dog that is absolutely terrified of the vacuum cleaner? Even amongst humans, punishers, as well as reinforcers are not the same for everyone. Having a child could be the most reinforcing, or most punishing thing a person has ever done. On the topic of children, we need to note that each stimuli may not be solely reinforcing or punishing all of the time. Take alcohol for example, reinforcing when we drink it, punishing the morning after.
Extinction belongs in this post, as the whole point of punishment is to reduce the frequency of a behaviour. However, in some cases (like self harm), just a reduction in the behaviour is not suitable, and needs to be eradicated. The basic definition of extinction is that a behaviour that was previously reinforced, is not no longer reinforced, and therefore does not occur in the future. When setting up extinction procedures, it is important to reinforce an alternative or conflicting behaviour to that of the problem behaviour. For example, a child who picks at its skin maybe given a soft brush to use on themselves, and this behaviour now is reinforced.
However, when using extinction, you have to be wary of some of the very serious side effects that this can cause. For example, an individuals' behaviour that you have put on extinction may display an extinction burst. This means that the frequency of the behaviour that you were not not reinforcing has sky rocketed, due to the individual doing everything they can to get the reinforcement. An extinction burst may also see new topographies (how the behaviour looks). Take for example, when the remote for the television has stopped working. You push the button, and nothing happens. You may push the button harder, or faster, or more times, or may bang the remote on the table, just to get the reinforcement you are used to. This is an extinction burst.
Spontaneous recovery is also likely to happen in behaviours put onto extinction. This is when the behaviour frequency does initially drop due to no reinforcement given, but then suddenly climbs back up in frequency, almost like the individual is' trying their luck' at receiving reinforcement. An example of this would be a child asking for a new toy, and not getting any reinforcement by receiving the toy, and stop asking. They then may start asking again for a different toy a few days later.
In a nutshell, punishment and extinction is used to decrease the frequency of behaviour, but can have some serious side effects if not done in an appropriate manner.
If you have any questions, or are unsure about anything, please let me know.
=]
Saturday 5 January 2013
Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
I'd guess that anyone who has any experience with Psychology has come across the word 'reinforcement'. Reinforcement is synonymous within the field, but a lot of people do not realise how complex these concepts can be.
So, the word 'positive' that we use to describe reinforcement (and punishment) has nothing do to with 'good' things. In this respect, positive simply means the adding of a stimulus in the environment. Backtracking a little, just to solidify the concepts, the term 'reinforcement' means that the behaviour will increase in future frequency.
For example, a child being praised for studying for the first time, and then the child studying again a few days later is a 'positive reinforcement'. There is a stimulus that is now available that was not available before the presentation of the behaviour (the praise) as well as an increase in the frequency of the behaviour (the child studies again in the near future).
In regards to the word 'negative', this means the removal of a stimulus in the environment. So an example of negative reinforcement would be turning off the television when there is a programme on you don't like, and doing this behaviour every time you see that programme on. You are removing the stimulus of the programme, and is reinforcing to you.
Take Note: It is important for you to remember that we can only classify consequences as being reinforcing or punishing if they increase or decrease frequency of behaviour in the future respectively. For example, just stating that a teacher shouts as her pupil for writing on the desks is not a punishment unless we have evidence to show that this consequence has decreased the future frequency of that behaviour. Think back to when you were at school, (or if your still at school) at those few children who were always non-compliant, unruly, often disruptive, and so on, and were shouted at every single day at school. The teacher shouting at them, although it may have worked as a punisher for most students, was not a punisher for these children, as their behaviour did not decrease.
The following diagram illustrates the effects of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement in a clearer way than words (it also shows positive punishment and negative punishment, but more on that in the next post).
Another key point we have to remember when dealing with positive (and negative) consequences, is that we know that the behaviour has changed due to the consequence that the behaviour has evoked. Going back to a previous example, a teacher shouting at her pupil may seemingly decrease the frequency of a behaviour, but it maybe the social disapproval from fellow classmates for interrupting class that maybe the effective positive punishment.
When we are looking to set up a situation where something that is going to reinforce a behaviour, we need to consider the following;
Set up an initial easy criterion.
Use high quality reinforcement of sufficient magnitude - Someone who is told that they will get £25 when they get a Nobel Prize is not going to be worked towards. Someone who will get £25 when they pass their driving test is a much more suitable criterion.
Use varied reinforcers - a child who always receives a chocolate bar every time they complete a piece of homework is soon going to get sick of chocolate (and possibly fat and unhealthy!)
Reinforce each occurrence first, and then gradually thin - again, giving a child a chocolate bar every single time they do their homework, they are going to expect this every time. It is likely that the natural reinforcement of performing well academically will ever emerge.
Gradually increase the time between the response and reinforcement given - You can't expect to work hard for a day, and then get a degree at the end.
Moving on from the basics of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement now, we need to consider some stimuli that may actually be positively or negatively reinforcing.
All animals, including humans, all have what is known as Automatic Reinforcers. These are reinforcers that need no mediation of others to be effective. A simple example is scratching an itch. The relief that you get from this is totally mediated by yourself. Rincover (1981) stated that automatic reinforcement is anything that "sounds good, looks good, tastes good, smells good, feels good to touch, or the movement is good" However, when talking in behaviour analyst terms, the word "good" has little value, as "good" is not a measurable concept (don't worry if your a bit lost with that one, just a little something extra).
As well as automatic reinforcement, we are also under the influence of Unconditioned Reinforcers. These are reinforcers that have evolutionary purposes; these are reinforcing to us, as they have aided our survival. Examples of unconditioned reinforcers are food, water, sleep, warmth, and so on. As I'm sure you don't need to be told, without even one of the following, our survival would not even be possible.
In contrast to unconditioned reinforcers, everything else we find reinforcing as known as Conditioned Reinforcers. These can range from our mobile phone and computer, to our love of music and literature. Money is also a conditioned reinforcer, but is usually seen as an extremely powerful reinforcer, as it not only allows us access to other conditioned reinforcers, but also access to unconditioned reinforcers like food and
warmth.
When looking at negative reinforcement, there is broadly two types of this; escape and avoidance.
Escape - when we perform a behaviour, it leads to us terminating a stimulus which is present that we do not want. For example, you may not want to do the washing up after dinner, so you make a fuss about it after doing a few, and someone else takes over, thus escaping the situation.
Avoidance - This is when we do not come into contact with the stimulus altogether. For example, after we have all finished dinner, my sister will wander upstairs so that she will not be asked to do the washing up, thus avoiding the task altogether.
So, to conclude, positive reinforcement is defined by consequences of behaviour that increase future frequency of behaviour by adding a stimuli to the environment. Negative reinforcement is defined by consequences that increase the future frequency of behaviour by removing stimuli from the environment.
Please ask questions about anything you want to know more about, or do not understand.
=]
So, the word 'positive' that we use to describe reinforcement (and punishment) has nothing do to with 'good' things. In this respect, positive simply means the adding of a stimulus in the environment. Backtracking a little, just to solidify the concepts, the term 'reinforcement' means that the behaviour will increase in future frequency.
For example, a child being praised for studying for the first time, and then the child studying again a few days later is a 'positive reinforcement'. There is a stimulus that is now available that was not available before the presentation of the behaviour (the praise) as well as an increase in the frequency of the behaviour (the child studies again in the near future).
In regards to the word 'negative', this means the removal of a stimulus in the environment. So an example of negative reinforcement would be turning off the television when there is a programme on you don't like, and doing this behaviour every time you see that programme on. You are removing the stimulus of the programme, and is reinforcing to you.
Take Note: It is important for you to remember that we can only classify consequences as being reinforcing or punishing if they increase or decrease frequency of behaviour in the future respectively. For example, just stating that a teacher shouts as her pupil for writing on the desks is not a punishment unless we have evidence to show that this consequence has decreased the future frequency of that behaviour. Think back to when you were at school, (or if your still at school) at those few children who were always non-compliant, unruly, often disruptive, and so on, and were shouted at every single day at school. The teacher shouting at them, although it may have worked as a punisher for most students, was not a punisher for these children, as their behaviour did not decrease.
The following diagram illustrates the effects of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement in a clearer way than words (it also shows positive punishment and negative punishment, but more on that in the next post).
Another key point we have to remember when dealing with positive (and negative) consequences, is that we know that the behaviour has changed due to the consequence that the behaviour has evoked. Going back to a previous example, a teacher shouting at her pupil may seemingly decrease the frequency of a behaviour, but it maybe the social disapproval from fellow classmates for interrupting class that maybe the effective positive punishment.
When we are looking to set up a situation where something that is going to reinforce a behaviour, we need to consider the following;
Set up an initial easy criterion.
Use high quality reinforcement of sufficient magnitude - Someone who is told that they will get £25 when they get a Nobel Prize is not going to be worked towards. Someone who will get £25 when they pass their driving test is a much more suitable criterion.
Use varied reinforcers - a child who always receives a chocolate bar every time they complete a piece of homework is soon going to get sick of chocolate (and possibly fat and unhealthy!)
Reinforce each occurrence first, and then gradually thin - again, giving a child a chocolate bar every single time they do their homework, they are going to expect this every time. It is likely that the natural reinforcement of performing well academically will ever emerge.
Gradually increase the time between the response and reinforcement given - You can't expect to work hard for a day, and then get a degree at the end.
Moving on from the basics of positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement now, we need to consider some stimuli that may actually be positively or negatively reinforcing.
All animals, including humans, all have what is known as Automatic Reinforcers. These are reinforcers that need no mediation of others to be effective. A simple example is scratching an itch. The relief that you get from this is totally mediated by yourself. Rincover (1981) stated that automatic reinforcement is anything that "sounds good, looks good, tastes good, smells good, feels good to touch, or the movement is good" However, when talking in behaviour analyst terms, the word "good" has little value, as "good" is not a measurable concept (don't worry if your a bit lost with that one, just a little something extra).
As well as automatic reinforcement, we are also under the influence of Unconditioned Reinforcers. These are reinforcers that have evolutionary purposes; these are reinforcing to us, as they have aided our survival. Examples of unconditioned reinforcers are food, water, sleep, warmth, and so on. As I'm sure you don't need to be told, without even one of the following, our survival would not even be possible.
In contrast to unconditioned reinforcers, everything else we find reinforcing as known as Conditioned Reinforcers. These can range from our mobile phone and computer, to our love of music and literature. Money is also a conditioned reinforcer, but is usually seen as an extremely powerful reinforcer, as it not only allows us access to other conditioned reinforcers, but also access to unconditioned reinforcers like food and
warmth.
When looking at negative reinforcement, there is broadly two types of this; escape and avoidance.
Escape - when we perform a behaviour, it leads to us terminating a stimulus which is present that we do not want. For example, you may not want to do the washing up after dinner, so you make a fuss about it after doing a few, and someone else takes over, thus escaping the situation.
Avoidance - This is when we do not come into contact with the stimulus altogether. For example, after we have all finished dinner, my sister will wander upstairs so that she will not be asked to do the washing up, thus avoiding the task altogether.
So, to conclude, positive reinforcement is defined by consequences of behaviour that increase future frequency of behaviour by adding a stimuli to the environment. Negative reinforcement is defined by consequences that increase the future frequency of behaviour by removing stimuli from the environment.
Please ask questions about anything you want to know more about, or do not understand.
=]
Monday 17 December 2012
In the beginning...
In the late 1800's, Edwards Thorndike's "Law of Effect" made a very basic assumption about human behaviour. The basis of the law is that any behaviour that we perform has some sort of benefit to ourselves. Our whole behavioural repertoire (the behaviours that we are able to do) is formulated on consequences (what happens due to us performing the behaviour) of that behaviour. We will perform behaviours that benefit us more often, and those that hinder us, less often. This whole idea is the basis of the whole of Behaviour Analysis.
In the early years of the 1900's, a man by the name of John Watson became interested in stimulus-response behaviour. In other words, he wanted to examine the effects that certain events have on our own behaviour. In order to do this, he abandoned his earlier project that was related to his profession of a physician, and analyse a simple stimulus-response of a dog and his food.
Watson wanted to measure the amount of saliva that a dog would produce when presented with a bowl of food. To achieve this, he quite gruesomely, cut into the cheeks of the dogs, to expose the saliva glands, and thus able to measure salivation. As predicted, the dogs would salivate more when given food than being in the absence of food. He then later began ringing a bell every time the dog would receive food. After a few pairings of these two stimuli, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell. This then demonstrated that stimuli (events) can be paired together, which then give them an association to one another. It has also been reported that the dogs would, after a fair few pairings, would salivate when Watson entered the room.
This experiment led the way to understanding more about the nature of human behaviour.
Watson believed that the only behaviour worth studying was behaviour that we could actually see with our own eyes. However, the man who is considered to be the founding father of Behaviour Analysis, B.F Skinner thought differently.
In the late 1930's B.F Skinner, Behaviour Analysis' most celebrated Psychologist, gave us the concept of Radical Behaviourism. This take on behaviour highlighted that behaviour is not limited observable actions, but also that internal thoughts and emotions are important to analyse. Radical Behaviourism's take on behaviour also included the statement that every behaviour that we engage in, is either part of our own personal history (our ontogeny), or within our evolutionary history (our phylogeny). This basically states that every behaviour we engage in has either benefited us personally in the past, or that it has benefited humankind in the past.
Skinner also introduced the basic research of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, which proceeded Radical Behaviourism as its philosophy, and Applied Behaviour Analysis, as the application of the basic research.
Radical Behaviourism has six key assumptions that make up its philosophy. These assumptions are key within Behaviour Analysis, and as Behaviour Analysts, we need to keep these assumptions in mind at all times.
The first one is Determinism. This assumption illustrates that all behaviour is lawful, and that we can predict (to an extent) what behaviour is going to occur based on environmental events.
Empiricism. That every measurement that we conduct is conducted properly, and measured reliably. Accuracy is extremely important.
Experimentation. All practice of Applied Behaviour Analysis is based on experimentation. This is achieved by measuring the effects that one change in the environment at a time, has on behaviour.
Replication. Although as scientists, we strive to be as empirical as possible, replications that show the same or similar results increase a studies validity.
Parsimony. It is common sense that having a very complicated explanation is redundant when a simpler explanation does the job just as well. This is parsimony.
Philosophic Doubt. We need to be sceptical about every bit of information we receive. Think about when someone says something to do, and you can't work out if they are telling the truth or not.
As well as these six, we also follow the Dimensions of Applied Behaviour Analysis, of which were formulated in an very important paper by Baer, Wolf and Risley (1968).
Applied. The behaviour that we are attempting to change must be of some importance to the individual's behaviour that we are changing.
Behavioural. We have to change something that is definable, measurable, and observable.
Analytic. This is that when we are looking at the environment and behaviour, we must be able to come to the conclusion that there is a relation between the two.
Technological. We need to use language that is universally used within the area of Applied Behaviour Analysis, so that everyone in the field can follow all information.
Conceptually Systematic. Everything needs to be explained fully and accurately.
Effective. Any behaviour that we change must see a significant change for it to be deemed a good application of resources.
General. We expect to see a behaviour change to occur in other situations other than the ones that we have changed the behaviour in. For example, actively reducing a child's tantrum in the supermarket should also lead to decreases in this behaviour in the home as well.
So, in close, we know how Behaviour Analysis has arisen through scientific experimentation, and the guidelines that we follow within the field of Applied Behaviour Analysis.
Ask any questions you want to know more about, or do not understand.
=]
In the early years of the 1900's, a man by the name of John Watson became interested in stimulus-response behaviour. In other words, he wanted to examine the effects that certain events have on our own behaviour. In order to do this, he abandoned his earlier project that was related to his profession of a physician, and analyse a simple stimulus-response of a dog and his food.
Watson wanted to measure the amount of saliva that a dog would produce when presented with a bowl of food. To achieve this, he quite gruesomely, cut into the cheeks of the dogs, to expose the saliva glands, and thus able to measure salivation. As predicted, the dogs would salivate more when given food than being in the absence of food. He then later began ringing a bell every time the dog would receive food. After a few pairings of these two stimuli, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell. This then demonstrated that stimuli (events) can be paired together, which then give them an association to one another. It has also been reported that the dogs would, after a fair few pairings, would salivate when Watson entered the room.
This experiment led the way to understanding more about the nature of human behaviour.
Watson believed that the only behaviour worth studying was behaviour that we could actually see with our own eyes. However, the man who is considered to be the founding father of Behaviour Analysis, B.F Skinner thought differently.
In the late 1930's B.F Skinner, Behaviour Analysis' most celebrated Psychologist, gave us the concept of Radical Behaviourism. This take on behaviour highlighted that behaviour is not limited observable actions, but also that internal thoughts and emotions are important to analyse. Radical Behaviourism's take on behaviour also included the statement that every behaviour that we engage in, is either part of our own personal history (our ontogeny), or within our evolutionary history (our phylogeny). This basically states that every behaviour we engage in has either benefited us personally in the past, or that it has benefited humankind in the past.
Skinner also introduced the basic research of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, which proceeded Radical Behaviourism as its philosophy, and Applied Behaviour Analysis, as the application of the basic research.
Radical Behaviourism has six key assumptions that make up its philosophy. These assumptions are key within Behaviour Analysis, and as Behaviour Analysts, we need to keep these assumptions in mind at all times.
The first one is Determinism. This assumption illustrates that all behaviour is lawful, and that we can predict (to an extent) what behaviour is going to occur based on environmental events.
Empiricism. That every measurement that we conduct is conducted properly, and measured reliably. Accuracy is extremely important.
Experimentation. All practice of Applied Behaviour Analysis is based on experimentation. This is achieved by measuring the effects that one change in the environment at a time, has on behaviour.
Replication. Although as scientists, we strive to be as empirical as possible, replications that show the same or similar results increase a studies validity.
Parsimony. It is common sense that having a very complicated explanation is redundant when a simpler explanation does the job just as well. This is parsimony.
Philosophic Doubt. We need to be sceptical about every bit of information we receive. Think about when someone says something to do, and you can't work out if they are telling the truth or not.
As well as these six, we also follow the Dimensions of Applied Behaviour Analysis, of which were formulated in an very important paper by Baer, Wolf and Risley (1968).
Applied. The behaviour that we are attempting to change must be of some importance to the individual's behaviour that we are changing.
Behavioural. We have to change something that is definable, measurable, and observable.
Analytic. This is that when we are looking at the environment and behaviour, we must be able to come to the conclusion that there is a relation between the two.
Technological. We need to use language that is universally used within the area of Applied Behaviour Analysis, so that everyone in the field can follow all information.
Conceptually Systematic. Everything needs to be explained fully and accurately.
Effective. Any behaviour that we change must see a significant change for it to be deemed a good application of resources.
General. We expect to see a behaviour change to occur in other situations other than the ones that we have changed the behaviour in. For example, actively reducing a child's tantrum in the supermarket should also lead to decreases in this behaviour in the home as well.
So, in close, we know how Behaviour Analysis has arisen through scientific experimentation, and the guidelines that we follow within the field of Applied Behaviour Analysis.
Ask any questions you want to know more about, or do not understand.
=]
Thursday 29 November 2012
Start
Hokai!
Nearly half way through my Masters course in Behaviour Analysis.
Finally, something I love, something that I really feel makes a difference in the everyday lives of people, something I want to be involved with for the rest of my life.
There are not enough individuals out there who are specialised in this area, so I just want to spread the love (and make a fun way for me to revise for exams.)
Going to try to post a good lot of information each once a week, and would be super excited if there was anyone out there to discuss this with, other than just my classmates.
So, on that note, watch this space,
And Skinner......
You da man.
=]
Nearly half way through my Masters course in Behaviour Analysis.
Finally, something I love, something that I really feel makes a difference in the everyday lives of people, something I want to be involved with for the rest of my life.
There are not enough individuals out there who are specialised in this area, so I just want to spread the love (and make a fun way for me to revise for exams.)
Going to try to post a good lot of information each once a week, and would be super excited if there was anyone out there to discuss this with, other than just my classmates.
So, on that note, watch this space,
And Skinner......
You da man.
=]
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